Home-based Work in Turkey:
Issues and Strategies for Organizing

January 2000

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In October 1999, the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) coordinated a five-day proposal development workshop, working group meeting, and field visits in Istanbul, Turkey, on women home-based workers. Program participants included women home-based workers, local and international researchers (ICRW, Bogaziçi University, Middle East Technical University, Marmara University), government agency representatives (State Planning Organization, State Institute of Statistics, Directorate General for the Status and Problems of Women, Ministry of Labor), local and international activists and NGO representatives (ICRW, Foundation for the Support of Women's Work, HomeNet, SEWA, Madeira), and ILO representatives.

Background

Evidence pertaining to the prevalence of home-based work is available in both developed and developing countries. Whether they work as entrepreneurs or through subcontractors, the activities of home-based workers form an important part of all national economies. However, there is little data about the total scope and true economic impact of home-based work, particularly done within the informal sector. Due to the lack of information about this segment of workers-90 percent of whom are women-advocates often refer to home-based workers as "the invisible workforce."

Not only are home-based workers invisible in most national statistics and policies, they are also among the most vulnerable of workers. Several factors contribute to home-based workers vulnerability: inadequate national and international labor protections, the isolating nature of their work, their limited power to negotiate fair prices for their products, and market fluctuations. Moreover, the fact that many women home-based workers do not regard what they do as "work" adds to the challenge of making home-based work more visible at the policy level. Studies from around the world reveal that many home-based workers define their activities as "temporary," "not work," but "passing leisure time," "hobby," or "for some pocket money."

A movement to both organize home-based workers and gather information about their activities has been underway at the local, national, and regional levels for the last 20 years. In the mid-1990's, international links between home-based workers and advocates were created and became more formal with the founding of HomeNet. Established as a network of grassroots organizations, HomeNet has links in 38 countries. Another important milestone for home-based worker advocates occurred in 1996 when the International Labor Organization (ILO) adopted the International Convention on Homework.1 The Convention sets forth minimum labor standards for homeworkers such as the right to organize, minimum wage, health and safety protections, social security protection, access to training, and maternity benefits.

ILO Convention Homework Definition*

-- the term "homework" means work carried out by a person, to be referred to as a homeworker, (i) in his or her home or in other premises of his or her own choice, other than the workplace of the employer; (ii) for remuneration; (iii) which results in a product or service as specified by the employer, irrespective of who provides the equipm ent, materials or other inputs used, unless this person has degree of autonomy and of economic independence necessary to be considered an independent worker under national laws, regulations or court decisions.

*For a full text of the convention and recommendations see: http://www.gn.apc.org/homenet/conv.html

Capturing a complete picture of home-based workers activities--specifically the number of workers by region and industry, annual household incomes, and the working conditions--remains a central objective of researchers and advocates. Recognizing that timely data about home-based work would help inform national and international labor policy debates, the ILO Convention also calls for the inclusion of homeworkers in labor statistics.

While the ILO's adoption of the International Convention on Homework is an important step, the Convention now must be ratified and implemented by each of the member countries. Finland and Ireland are the first countries to do so. Often using the ILO Convention as a new tool to engage policymakers, researchers and advocates at the local, regional, and international level continue to draw attention to the constraints faced by home-based workers. These efforts help to illuminate the economic impact of home-based work activities.

Turkey Workshop

Scope and Objectives

From October 23-27, 1999, about 40 individuals gathered in Istanbul to discuss the nature and status of home-based work in Turkey. The workshop participants included international and national researchers, Turkish government officials, women home-based workers, and representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), United Nations agencies regional offices, and the ILO. Organized by a coordinating committee of researchers and women activists based in Turkey, the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW), HomeNet, and the Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA), the three main objectives of the workshop were to:

• Increase the visibility of women home-based workers in Turkey among government agencies, the general public, and research institutions;
• Present the rationale and the terms of the 1996 ILO Convention on Homework to the conference participants and the general public; and
• Discuss strategies to implement the ILO Convention on Homework in Turkey.

The workshop consisted of two phases. During the first phase, researchers and activists from the United Kingdom, Portugal, Greece, Bulgaria, India, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Romania exchanged information about the status, needs, and the concerns about home-based work in their countries with their Turkish counterparts. Workshop sessions on strategies, first-hand experiences, research and national policies were led by workshop organizers Simel Esim (ICRW), Dilek Hattatoglu, Nilgun Çaga, Belkis Kumbetoglu as well as Mirai Chatterjee (SEWA) and Anne Herbert (ILO).

A smaller working group was convened for the second phase of the workshop. The specific task for this group was to develop a multi-prong research and action plan based on the discussions, findings, and recommendations from phase one of the workshop. This action-research plan will become the first step in organizing Turkish home-based workers; expanding national, regional, and international cooperation; and formalizing collaborations among the workshop participants.

The workshop took place in the shadow of the devastating August 1999 earthquake.2 The industrial regions were affected the most by the earthquake and many home-based workers lost their job, creating an even greater need for the workshop and for the development of strategies for grassroots organizing.

Strategies for Grassroot Organizing

In one of the sessions of the workshop, Jane Tate, a HomeNet representative, noted that HomeNet works to address the many problems faced by home-based workers and collaborates with home-based workers in many countries, including the Netherlands, Portugal, and India. Ms. Tate stressed that in spite of the many regional differences among home-based workers there are many commonalities. She also noted that home-based workers work in many different sectors-crafts, incense making, bidi work (tobacco rolling), embroidery, and electronics.

Additionally, Ms. Tate explained that home-based workers engage in different types of employment arrangements. There are two basic kinds of home-based workers: those doing piece rate work for an employer, subcontractor or intermediary; and those referred to as "own-account workers" because they market their products themselves. She noted, however, that the distinctions are not so clear-cut in practice. Some women do both kinds of work and others are economically dependent on traders as suppliers and buyers of their products even when they do own account work.

Ms. Tate urged workshop participants to keep in mind that there are a range of approaches for improving the status of home-based workers, adding "There are many different forms of organizing and different strategies for dealing with pay, social security or work flow issues. People need to work out the form that is most appropriate in each country."

Women Home-based Workers: Their Stories

A home-based carpet weaver since childhood, Gülperi currently sells most of her carpets to neighbors that learn about her work through "word of mouth." Illustrating the seasonal fluctuation in her outputs, Gülperi said that it takes her approximately 15 days to complete one carpet during the summer months, but it takes up to one month during the winter months because of the shorter daylight hours and colder temperatures. Gülperi stated that she prefers home-based work to other types. When her children were young, working at home allowed her to spend more time with them. Gülperi has taken work from subcontractors, but stated that she did not earn much money through that scheme. She also worked as a subcontracter herself which required long hours away from home, sometimes overnight around delivery deadlines. Therefore, she left it. She stated that since becoming a municipal councilperson, and because of the earthquakes, she has not been able to attend to her carpet work.

A home-based bead worker, Gönül first learned about subcontracted work through a friend. She was forthright in explaining to the workshop participants that her husband would not allow her to work outside of the home. She has taken on a variety of goods such as knit work, hair bands, shoes, and toys for home-based work on a piece rate basis. Often her husband discourages her because the piece rates are extremely low. However, he often helps her complete work with rush jobs and deadlines. Her children also have helped her complete work. Gönül has worked with many different intermediaries and often learns of homework through street ads and by word-of-mouth from neighbors and relatives. She earns approximately US$10 per month from the subcontract work, which is not full time as the supply of work is not regular or consistent.

Pervin has done piecework since she came to Istanbul over a decade ago. The piece rates were always very low, but at least there was a good flow of work. She would try to negotiate better rates for herself and encourage those she knew to do the same. More recently, there are very few piecework jobs. The work has been very sporadic and women accept whatever they can get. At one point, she thought she could become a subcontractor by pooling family resources and distributing the work to her family and neighbors with better piece rates. However the down payment quoted for securing the work from the factory was exorbitant and in German marks. Her family, especially her sister Nevin Il who is one of the workshop organizers and a labor activist, encouraged her to start her own business, but after some market research she realized that owning her own business was too risky of a venture without securing stable marketing channels. She believes the Turkish economy is too volatile to start an own-account enterprise at this time.

The Researchers' Lens

Several researchers at the workshop shared observations, analyses, and data from studies and surveys on home-based work in Turkey. Dr. Simel Esim and Ms. Hattatoglu discussed their fieldwork in a number of districts in Istanbul, Ankara, and Çorum where they found evidence of solidarity and networks, which are forms of informal economic organizing, among women home-based workers. Dr. Ferhunde Ozbay, a professor of sociology from Bogaziçi University, noted a few findings from a study conducted by Dr. Mine Çinar, based on three recent surveys in Istanbul and Bursa. Some of the findings are that:

• 90.4 percent of the women home-based workers are married with an average number of 3.5 children, ranging in age from zero to nine.
• Average number of years doing home-based work was 3.9 years, with a majority of respondents doing this type of work for four years or less (78.4 percent).
• Only 19.2 percent of the respondents had worked previously; of those who had worked, 40 percent had worked in sewing jobs, 30 percent had worked in factories, 20 percent as sales clerks, and 10 percent as janitors.
• Among those who previously worked, 54 percent said they had to quit when they got married because their husbands did not permit them to continue work. Among those who never worked, the majority did not work before marriage due to lack of father's permission and once they got married they did not look for jobs outside the home due to lack of husband's permission.

Dr. Ayda Eraydin, from Middle East Technical University, and other workshop participants addressed the formal labor market constraints in urban Turkey. It was noted that 60 percent of city dwellers are unemployed with only 14 percent reporting that they are looking for a job. Additionally, 15.5 percent of women are employed and of those that are employed 54 percent do not have social benefits. Over five million people migrated to Istanbul, mainly from rural areas, between 1960 and 1990.

A National Policy around Home-based Work

While the Turkish government may not be prepared to ratify the ILO Convention as a whole at the present time, the Convention can still be used to lobby for adoption of a national policy on home-based work, or for legislation on specific issues such as minimum wages or social security provisions. In a working group exercise, ILO representative, Ms. Anne Herbert divided the workshop participants into two groups, each with representatives from home-based workers, researchers, government representatives, and activists. Each group was asked to examine the eight items contained in Article 4 (item 2) of the ILO Convention on Homework and then come to agreement on their three top priorities for Turkey. The priorities for group one were 1) social security 2) remuneration and 3) job security and safety. The priorities for the second group were 1) right to association 2) protection against discrimination and 3) remuneration. Extensive discussions took place between the Ministry of Labor and State Planning Organization representatives. Remuneration came out as the key strategic entry point for building a national policy around home-based work.

Summary Table

Reasons why women engage in home-based work:

• Better livelihoods
• Difficulty finding a job outside the home
• Poor conditions and long hours of jobs outside the home
• Mobility constraints such as lack of affordable child care and the lack of permission to work outside the home

Conditions and characteristics of home-based work:

• Home-based workers are often first affected by an economic crisis
• Work constraints because of other members of the household
• Decreasing demand for goods (sectoral fluctuations)
• Low income and low remuneration
• Rapid changes in the type of work, sector, and skills required for homework
• Long hours
• Child labor
• Uneven work flow of work
• Must incur many overhead costs such as storage, electricity, transportation of goods
• Lack of social security, retirement, unemployment insurance
• Difficulty marketing own-account goods
• Challenges reaching markets and obtaining information about work

Media Coverage During and Following the Workshop

* Sabah Newspaper, Feature Story for "The Ms. Sabah" Section on October 14, 1999:
* Radio Cumhuriyet, announcement about the workshop, October 23-27, 1999
* Channel 8, (national cable TV station) 10 minute live interview of Dilek Hattatoglu and Simel Esim , aired October 22, 1999
* Anadolu Agency, Jane Tate from HomeNet interviewed, October 23, 1999
* Aksiyon Journal, Simel Esim , Dilek Hattatoglu and a number of women home-workers interviewed for a two-page story in the 6-13 November, 1999 issue.
* Pazartesi Journal, information about the workshop, November 1999 issue. Follow-up two-page story for December 1999 by Handan Koç.
* Cumhuriyet, (national newspaper) workshop covered by reporter Sukran Soner, October 24, 1999
* Best FM, 30-minute on-air interview of Jane Tate, Mirai Chatterjee, Dilek. Hattatoglu, and Simel Esim by Musa Ozugurlu host of Vocal Newspaper program, October 25, 1999.
* Radio Cumhuriyet, the Labor Agenda program recorded interview with Simel Esim and live interview with Dilek Hattatoglu, October 29, 1999.
* Channel 8 - "Coffee Break," (national cable TV program) 30-minute interview of Nilgun Çaga and Belkis Kumbetoglu, November 8, 1999.
* Our Family (monthly journal) news and analysis, December 1999
* Jin-u Jiyan (Kurdish women's journal) cover story for October/November 1999 issue
* Radikal 2, Work Inside, Money Outside, [article] by Semra Somersan based on interviews with Dilek Hattatoglu and Nilgun Çaga, November 14, 1999.

References

Chen, Martha, Jennifer Sebstad, and Lesley O'Connell. 1999. "Counting the invisible workforce: The case of homebased workers." World Development 27(3): 603-10.

Çinar, Mine. 1994. "Unskilled urban migrant women and disguised employment: Home-working women in Istanbul, Turkey." World Development 22(3): 369-380.
Eraydin, Ayda and Asuman Erendil. 1995. "New Production Processes in Export-Oriented Garment Industry and Women's Labor Force Participation in the Process." Unpublished manuscript.

Esim, Simel. 2000. "Solidarity in isolation: Urban self-employed women's economic organizations in Turkey." Middle Eastern Studies Journal 36 (1): 143-157.

This information bulletin was compiled by Simel Esim and Marjorie Sims based on reports and materials from Dilek Hattatoglu, Jane Tate, and Nazik Isik.

Contacts Box:

Simel Esim, Ph.D., Economist
International Center for Research on Women
1717 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Suite 302
Washington, DC 20036
Tel: 202-332-2853 ext. 148
Fax: 202-332-8257
E-mail: sesim@icrw.org

http://www.icrw.org/

Dilek Hattatoglu
Working Group on Women Home-Based Workers in Turkey
Tahirpasa sok. 5/15
Çengelköy/istanbul
Tel: 90 216 318 06 15
e mail: eroloz@anet.net.tr

http://msnhomepages.talkcity.com:6010/volunteerst/homebasedworkers

Jane Tate
HomeNet
24 Harlech Terrace
Leeds LS11 7DX, UK
Tel: +44 113 2701119
Fax: +44 113 2773269
E-mail: homenet@gn.apc.org

http://www.gn.apc.org/homenet

Self Employed Women's Association
SEWA Reception Centre, Opp. Victoria Garden
Bhadra, Ahmedabad - 380 001. India.
Phone : 91-79-5506444, 5506477
Fax : 91-79-5506446
Email : sewa.mahila@gnahd.globalnet.ems.vsnl.net.in

http://www.sewa.org

Funding for the workshop was provided by the East Europe and Central Asia Bureau of UNIFEM and Friedrich Ebert Foundation in Turkey.

Endnotes

1 The definition of homework includes piecework and subcontracting work. It is slightly more limited than home-based work, which also includes own-account workers that have more freedom in purchasing inputs and marketing their products and services.
2 Turkey was hit by two serious earthquakes in less than three months. The first struck on August 17 at Izmit in Turkey's heavily populated northwest. Over 17,000 people died, 44,000 were injured, and hundreds of thousand were left homeless. The second one struck on November 12 in the more rural area of Duzce, killing another thousand people and leaving many more homeless.

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